From Fleeing Out to Sneaking In

Having covered a wide array of topics in the world of film and movies on this blog, there are two major progressions that one can view foment over the past century. The first major change is the increase in movie technology, causing old film strips to be replaced by new, high-tech digital projecting machines. Because of this change, the second result is the prevention of movie fires due to the removal of highly flammable cellulose nitrate film from movie theaters. Now, with this fear gone, instead of children and teens flooding out of the theater to escape hazardous fires, such as in the Palace Theater in Montreal, they are eagerly heading into the theater to see new and exciting movies. However, has a new problem slowly arisen over the past few decades?

“Today, many underage teens go to extreme measures, including buying or making fake ID’s, to sneak into R-rated movies, leaving parents and the MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America) to ponder a tough question: do movie ratings matter anyway?” (quotation from linked website)

The movie rating system, designed specifically to help parents make informed decisions about what children should be allowed to see, is not always consistent and there is definitely a double standard when it comes to sex and violence. The MPAA tends to be much harsher when it comes to rating explicit content.

And getting teens to abide by ratings is an increasingly difficult task. A majority of teens buy tickets for a G or PG film and slip into the R-rated movies when nobody is looking, while others resort to using fake ID’s. Many theaters fail to check for correct movie tickets before people enter a movie, making it easy for teens to slip into movies that they are too young to see.

On the other hand, the movie industry does not make it reasonable for teens to see a movie when a majority of them are rated R to begin with. On average, 65 percent of movies released are R-rated, leaving only 45 percent of the movies for teens to see. With such limited choices, it is no wonder why some young adolescents choose to sneak into R movies- because there is nothing else out there to see! For instance, at this current moment, if a theater was showing Saw II, R-rated, and Chicken Little, G-rated, the clear winner for a teenager in this case would be the heart-pounding thriller Saw II over the child-oriented, lighthearted Chicken Little.

Although this movie-sneaking practice is by no means acceptable since it does undermine the whole “movie-rating” system, movie ratings are hear to stay and still do their main purpose- to give parents a heads-up to content their kids are not ready to see. One may find it rather amusing to see to change in trends over the past century- when movies first came out, there was the worry that the movie theater would catch on fire. But now, in the 22nd century, parents must now be concerned about the content of the movie their child is watching rather then the material the film is made of. Maybe everyone should just stick to renting DVD’s- there is no harm in that, right?
~Adam Kohn

Phonograph, what were you thinking?

Dr. Joe mentions that the great inventor, Thomas Edison, had once participated in the development of kinetoscope. But Edison was well known for many other accomplishments. Edison's famous inventions include the tin foil phonograph, the first machine in the world that could record and reproduce sound. Like many other inventions, Edison stumbled upon this by chance; his original intent was to improve the efficiency of a telegraph transmitter. But when he noticed that the machine gave off a noise resembling spoken words when played at a high speed, he soon produced a device from the diaphragm of a telephone receiver by attaching a needle to it. He reasoned that the needle could prick paper tape to record a message. After various attempts of tinkering with the device, he finally produced a device which included a mouthpiece and a needle. By talking into the mouthpiece, the sound vibrates the needle and creates a unique indent in the tin foil which could later be identified by the same device to playback the sound. The first message Edison successfully recorded was "Mary had a little lamb" in his research lab in Menlo Park, New Jersey.
Edison filed for the patent for the phonograph on December 24, 1877. Since then, he toured the country introducing the phonograph. And in April 1878, he was invited to the White House to demonstrate the device to President Rutherford B. Hayes. Since then, the phonograph has been used to create "books" for the blind, toys for the young, and recordings for the entertainment industry.

Movie Medium of the Future

The articles in this blog have mainly focused on past and present mediums, such as cellulose nitrate and DVD’s, respectively, that movies were put on. However, the future is full of new ways to store movies, particularly, Blu-ray Discs. Blu-ray Discs are similar to DVD's in the sense that they are compact discs, however, the storage capacity of Blu-ray Discs will be more than five times larger than conventional DVD's. Where a single layer DVD can hold 4.7 GB of information, the Blu-ray Disc can hold 25 GB of information! This equals to about 2 hours of HDTV or 13 hours of standard television. The reason the Blu-ray Disc can hold this much space is mainly because the color of the laser is different. Where as DVD's use a red laser, the Blu-ray Discs use a blue-violet laser. The reason why this makes such a large difference is because the wavelength of a blue-violet laser is 405nm compared to 650nm of the red laser. This decrease in wavelength allows the laser to be projected with more accuracy, thus causing the bytes on the disc to be more tightly packed. This consequently allows for more bytes on the disc. This new technology is only out in Japan at the moment, however, within a few years, it will be the new storage device for movies, music, and computer data.
~Ethan

Movie "R"atin"G"

With advancements in movie technology, replacing antiquated cellulose and polyester film with digital movie projectors and cameras, the fear of a film catching on fire is for the most part obsolete. Likewise, children have nothing to fear while watching a good old movie. However, with the end of this fear of course evolves a new worry. Instead of fretting over what a film is made of, parents must now ponder the content of the movies their children are viewing. With the intent to bring in a gargantuan amount of money, the content of movies has evolved from benign to rather crude over the past century to appeal to more popular interests. However, to help contend with more intense movie content and to make it feasible for parents to know what type of movie their child is viewing, the Movie Rating System was created to inform viewers about the content of the movie being viewed.

Sponsored by the Motion Picture Association of America and the National Association of Theatre Owners, the Rating system went into effect of November 1, 1968. Simply put, the system provided, and to this date still…

“Provides parents with advance information on films,
enabling parents to make judgments on movies they want or do not want their
children to see " (quotation from linked website)

The system serves as a technique to inform the viewer whether the movie contains safe content or more mature, graphic content, thus making it easier to judge whether a movie is suitable for kids and young teenagers. The system is not devised to approve, disapprove, or censor any film. In simply assigns a rating as a source of guidance, leaving all the decisions up to the parent.

A movie rating is assigned to a movie based on a specially designed committee of parents called the film rating board of Classification and Rating Administration. Together, the committee views each film, and after a group discussion, the parents vote on a rating for the movie, making an educated estimate as to which rating most American parents would consider suitable. The committee uses the same criteria when rating a movie as any parent would use when watching a movie with their child. Theme, language, violence, nudity, sex and drug use all fall under the content areas scrutinized in the decision making process. In addition, the elements employed in the context of each film are also assessed. Each element is equally considered, culminating in a rating that complies with the substance of the film.

There are 5 different symbols that can accompany a movie, each of which signifies the specific type of content in the movie. For a movie that is suitable for general audiences, a rating of G is given. For movies given a G rating, all ages can be admitted into the movie, and signifies that the film contains nothing most parents will consider offensive for even their youngest children to see or hear. For movies that are rated PG (parent guidance), the movie may not be suitable for children, and may contain material parents might not like to expose young children to. Movies that are rated PG-13 may be inappropriate for children under 13. It also signifies that the film rated may be unsuitable for pre-teens since the movie may contain scenes of drug use and harsher sexually derived words. A movie with a rating of R, standing for Restricted-Under 17, requires an accompanying parent or adult guardian. Such movies contain some adult material, such as strong language, violence, sex, and drug use. Finally, for films that are rated NC-17, no one under the age of 17 is admitted. This signifies that the rating board believes that most American parents would feel that film is boldly explicit, containing sex scenes, sexually-oriented language, or scenes of excessive violence. However, this does not signify that the film is obscene or pornographic.

Although the rating system is not a law, contrary to popular belief, theaters can enforce the rating and refuse admission for those individuals too young for certain movie content.
~Adam Kohn

Movie Projectors

Going to the movie theater has become a staple of American culture, but as one watches The Legend of Zorro while munching on popcorn, it is hard to take a moment to admire the complexity of the movie projectors that animates the film. A roll of film is nothing more than a mere collection of pictures taken in different moments of an action. But by quickly rotating through the pictures, an illusion of a continuous animation can be felt. And by projecting the animation onto a wide movie screen, a movie is born!

A typical movie projector plays a film at 24 fps (frames per second), while every 16 frames (pictures) can fit on 1 foot of film. This means that 1 second of a movie requires 1.5 feet of film, and 7,200 seconds of animation (a 2 hour film), requires 11,250 feet of film! That comes out to about 2.13 miles of film for a typical movie. In order to store such a massive amount of film, 5 or 6 reels have to be used and the projectionist has to switch from reel to reel every 20 minutes or so. But the platter, invented in the 1960's, reduced the amount of manual power needed to perform reel changes. The platter holds several reels at once and places them vertical to each other. The end of one reel would be connected to the start of another reel through a process called splicing, and thus the movie would move on to play the second reel once the first is done.

In order to project the film onto the big screen, xenon bulbs are commonly used in lamps today. Xenon is a rare gas which in dense enough quantities will conduct electricity. Once it becomes a conductor, it glows very brightly and will continue to provide bright illumination for a substantial amount of time (2,000 to 6,000 hours). The xenon bulb is mounted in the center of a parabolic mirror located in the lamphouse which is behind the film reels. The mirror focuses the light into a condenser, which acts almost like a magnifying glass, intensifying the light into a strong beam which shines into the film. The light goes through the film and projects its images onto the movie screen. It is important to note that the beam of light is so strong that it produces an immense amount of heat, which would easily melt or ignite the film if the film was not moving at 24 frames per second.
-Mike

Portable Pictures

Cameras are always great to use when it comes taking pictures of memorable moments. However, even though the film in the camera may store exciting memories, half the time people forget to get the film developed, or do not bother to develop the film because it can at times cost more than it is worth. Hence, these memories are trapped for eternity in a “negative” form on a strip of film. What a dilemma! Luckily, a solution has arrived that can put an end to the annoying process of developing film used in cameras.

“Instant camera film is remarkable because it has its own built-in
developing studio.” (quotation from linked website)

Instead of going to the store to develop film, pictures can be developed within the confines of the camera. Before explaining in detail how the film is developed on the spot, a basic understanding of traditional photographic film is essential.

Film is basically a plastic base coated with particles of silver compound that are light-sensitive. In color film, there are three layers of silver compound (the top layer is sensitive to blue light, the next layer is sensitive to green and the bottom layer is sensitive to red), and in black-and-white film, the is one layer of silver compound. These sensitive grains of silver compound at each layer react to light of that color, forming metallic silver at that layer. This results in a chemical record of the light and color pattern.

To make this “negative” image on the film into a picture, the image must be developed first by turning the exposed particles into metallic silver through a developer chemical. The film is then treated with three different dye developers containing dye coupler (cyan, magenta, and yellow). The color layers in the film cause each of these dye couplers to react. In ordinary print film, the dye couplers attach to particles that have been exposed. In color slide film, the non-exposed areas are joined by the dye couplers.

The developing process of instant cameras combines colors the same way as a slide forms. Slide film forms when two dyes attach to the unexposed area, forming the color captured at the exposed layer. Instant cameras have the same layers of light-sensitive grains as traditional films, all arranged on a plastic sheet. However, the plastic sheet (film) contains several additional layers. Within these layers are the essential chemicals for the development process. Below each color layer, there is a developer layer containing dye couplers. A black base layer remains behind all of these layers and underneath the image layer (see image provided). This arrangement is simply a chemical chain reaction capable of creating a picture.

In order to catalyze the developing process, a reagent is used. This reagent is a mix of opacifiers, alkali, white pigment and other elements. This reagent remains in a layer about the light-sensitive layers and just below the image layer. Before the picture is taken, the reagent material is all collected in a blob at the border of the plastic sheet, away from the light sensitive materials. This accounts for the white border around Polaroid images, and also keeps the film from developing before it has been exposed. After taking the picture, the film sheet comes out of the camera, through a pair of rollers. These rollers spread the reagent material out into the middle of the film sheet. Once the reagent is evenly spread between the image layer and the light sensitive layers, it reacts with other chemical layers in the film. The film is not fully exposed before it is developed because the opacifier material stops light from filtering onto the layer below.

The reagent chemical moves downward through the layers, changing the exposed particles in each layer into metallic silver. The developer dye is then dissolved by the chemicals, causing the chemicals to diffuse up toward the image layer. The grains that were exposed to light (metallic silver areas) stop the dyes from moving. Only the dyes from the unexposed layers will move up to the image layer.

While these reagent chemicals are working down through the light sensitive layers, other reagent chemicals are working through the upper film layers. In order to make the opacifiers clear, the acid layer in the film reacts with the akali and opacifiers in the reagent. This makes it possible to see the image below. To give the film time to develop before it is exposed to light, the timing layer slows the reagent down on its path to the acid layer.

This process may seem a bit complex, but the result is quite amazing and saves time, effort, and costs less than going to the store to develop the film.
~Adam Kohn

The Chemistry of Photography

In previous blogs, the development of light sensitive chemicals was discussed. However, the more interesting part is how those chemicals actually react to light. As discussed previously, these chemicals are usually silver-based. Most commonly, silver halide salts are used, for example silver bromide. These salts crystallize and are referred to as grains. The grains are put into gelatin which is then coated onto a base, such as cellulose nitrate. When these grains are hit by a photon, the bromide absorbs it, and the AgBr dissociates and becomes Ag+(superscript), Br, and an extra electron. This electron is then used to create a silver atom from the ion. The silver atoms then associate, or group together. A chemical called a "developer" is then used to create large deposits of free silver, which creates a dark area. From this a negative appears: a photon incites a reaction which turns the film black. Hence, sections in the film with a bright light will be dark, and a dim area in the picture will cause the image to be lighter. At this point, a photographer can take a transparent copy of the image and shine a light through it, onto another sheet of light sensitive film. This will cause the areas that are dark to prevent light to go through, creating a lack of photons, resulting in a light area in the film. On the other hand, light areas let a photons pass through, creating dark areas. This allows the photographer to get a closer representation of the original picture.
-Ethan Kleinbaum

The Sour Wonder

As previously mentioned in Self Digesting Film, the breakdown of old film is caused by the release of acetic acid over time. But acetic acid serves many purposes other than destroying antique films. In fact, aside from the film industry, it is fervantly sought after by people all around the world. Some common uses of acetic acid include the production for polyethylene terephthalate, which is used in soft drink bottles, and polyvinyl acetate, which is used in wood glue. Other various uses of acetic acid include the process of developing photographic films, removing limescale from kettles, treating outer ear infections and treating the stings of box jellyfish which could potentially save lives. Acetic acid most often presents itself in vinegar, a substance as old as history itself. It has helped the development of ancient Greek art in creating a white color pigment when combined with certain metals; it is also an ingredient in sapa, highly sweet syrup made from copper (II) acetate, a delicacy responsible for the leading poison among the Roman aristocracy. Acetic acid is a weak acid in aqueous solution, with a pH of 2.4. It dissolves some polar as well as some nonpolar compounds, making it a popular solvent. Similar to other substances that are unusable in their natural forms, acetic acid needs to be dissolved in solution before it can be used practically. Thus, the 6.5 billion kilograms of annual demand for acetic acid world wide is understandable.
-Mike

Light Sensitive Imagery

Previous blog entries have explained how the base of film is made, however, none of the entries covered how pictures are actually captured on film. It turns out that the material that this was done with has changed about as many times as cellulose nitrate film has combusted. The concept of film started in 1727 when J.H. Schulze noticed that a mix of silver nitrate and chalk became black when it was hit by light. About a century later, in 1824, Nicephore Niepce created the first somewhat permanent pictures using silver salt in bitumen.

Niepce's partner, Louis Daguerre, discovered by accident that mercury vapor was
capable of developing an image on a silver-plated copper sheet that had been
previously sensitized by iodine vapor.

(quotation from linked website)

Immediately following Daguerre's discovery, photography technology improved rapidly. A few years later, Louis Daguerre found out that mercury vapor on a silver-plated copper sheet sensitized by iodine vapor could make a permanent image. 1841 brought about the calotype process, created by William Henry Fox Talbot, which consisted of coating paper with silver iodide to make it light sensitive. The negative image would come up on the paper when it was put in gallic acid. This paper was put on top of another light sensitive paper which was then exposed to light, causing the opposite of the negative; the positive image. The process today is very similar to Talbot's initial creation. -Ethan Kleinbaum

Starting Simple

“Modern motion picture making began with the invention of
the motion picture camera.”
(quotation from linked website)

Although motion pictures play a key role in society today, mainly as a form of entertainment and for educational purposes, it took over a century to perfect the art of creating them. Today the technology used to create motion pictures if far too advanced for any amateur to work with, but the first machine that ever showed animated movies was as basic as a kid’s toy. This first device, called the “wheel of life” or “zoopraxiscope”, was invented by William Lincoln in 1867. The device was extremely simple, only consisting of a wheel that spun, making it appear as though the image was moving as a person watched through a slit in the zoopraxiscope. Unfortunately, the device did not attract much attention, and was soon replaced by motion cameras.

With the invention of the first motion picture camera by Frenchman Louis Lumiere in 1895, motion pictures became a big hit in America. His motion-picture camera was portable, could process film, and also contained a projector called the Cinematographe. With all these functions in one device, the motion picture era evolved.

At around the same time, the Edison company successfully demonstrated the Kinetoscope, which enabled one person at a time to view moving pictures. By 1896, Edison introduced his Vitascope projector, which also played a crucial role in promoting the motion picture era.

As more innovative motion picture cameras were introduced, the world of motion picture drastically improved, leading up to the excellent movies available at this current time. Even today, companies are competing to produce the best motion pictures, which will result in better movie experiences in the years to come!

~Adam Kohn

Restoring the Past in a High-Tech Way

“According to the survey of the Library of Congress of the United States, about eighty percent of silent movies produced in the United States have already been lost or are in unrestorable states.”
(quotation from linked website)

Movies have been a staple of American culture since the early 1900’s. But unfortunately, even though movies have remained popular through the 20th and 21st centuries, the films themselves have not exactly stood the test of time as successfully. Since movies were (and still are in some cases) created by chemical transformation of materials on a film, physical degradation of the films directly affected the quality of the recorded images. Likewise, after almost one hundred years, it should come as no surprise to learn that most of the movies that date back to the 1900’s are no longer in existence due to the film's physical degradation. By losing these old movies, it is almost like losing a piece of American history. Likewise, to prevent this from happening, movie communities, such as the Tokyo University Digital Museum and Eastman Kodak, have established several institutes in many countries to digitally restore these decaying films through the use of image processing technologies. The most famous example is the digital restoration of the popular Disney movie “Snow White”, which was created in 1937.

In restoring a movie, there are key factors that are concentrated on to ensure optimal digital quality of the movie. The factors include…
~removing cracks, flaws, and blots
~correction of contrast and color
~regulation of size and position
~correction of sound and the removal of noise

The process of restoring the film first begins with film scanning, in which the image information on the film is digitized using a special scanner for movie films. By using the film scanner, one frame of film can be digitized in 30 seconds. Then, pre-processing takes place, which includes correction of errors made in the film scanning process. Following pre-processing comes the main process; digital restoration. This process detects flaws and cracks on the basis of image frequency analysis, motion analysis of pictures, and so on. Also, through comparison with reference films, the process corrects color, brightness, and contrast. Finally, the movie is played, approved, and printed on movie films or stored in a DVD. Through digital restoration, old movies are being brought back to life, and are saved for future generations to enjoy. Digital technology is helping to keep the past alive, linking the high-tech world to the “olden” days.
-Adam Kohn

Projecting the Future!

Currently, Digital Light Processing (DLP) projectors dominate the movie projection industry due to the products image projection quality and affordable cost. However, this glory will not last for too long; Texas Instruments, the creator of the DLP projector, is working on updating the projectors technology to make the device even better than it currently is. To do so, the company is making changes to the Digital Micro-mirror Device (DMD) inside of the DLP projector. The DMD chip is a tiny, lightweight chip that digitally adjusts light through the use of mirrors arranged on it. Once of the changes being made to the DMD chip is the addition of more mirrors to the chip, which in turn will increase the amount of pixels the projected image has. In addition, Texas Instruments new HD2+ design incorporates an additional color (dark green) into the color wheel. This allows for contrast ratios greater than 3000:1 for much improved color reproduction and contrast. Soon to come out is a device called “Sequential Color Recapture” (SCR), which will replace the traditional color wheel in the DLP projector with a “Spiral of Archimedes” RGB color pattern.
However, with such new projection technology come problems of course. The key situation is adding more pixels to the DMD chip. The process of adding more pixels (mirrors) is too challenging and requires larger and more costly micro-displays. Also, shrinking the size of each mirror/pixel makes the DMD chips impossible to mass-produce at a reasonable cost. Over time a solution will be discovered, but for now, time can only tell when this new technology will make its debut!
-Adam Kohn

Digitizing Film

"The fastest growing type of video projector (in terms of sales) in use today is the Digital Light Processing projector."
(from linked website)

Though improvements have been made to the quality of film reels, they unfortunately do not have an infinite lifespan. Film is very sensitive to light, and tends to weaken and fall apart over time. That explains why many movies from the beginning of the 20th century are not around anymore. But luckily, due to advancements in movie technology over the past two decades, film may soon be a thing of the past. How could this be possible? Invented in 1987 by Texas Instruments, Digital Light Processing (DLP) projectors are quickly working there way into theaters across the country, replacing the antiquated technique of film projection. DLP technology is based on an optical semiconductor called a Digital Micro-mirror Device (DMD chip), which is an extremely precise light switch that makes it possible for light to be modulated digitally through the use of millions of microscopic mirrors arranged in a rectangular way. Hence, every pixel on the chip is a mirror. The mirrors, which are less than one micron apart, are capable of switching on and off thousands of times per second and are used to direct light towards and away from a specific pixel space. Therefore, when the video image is displayed on the DMD chip, the micro-mirrors on the chip tilt very rapidly as the image changes. The duration of the time it takes for the mirrors to tilt determines the shade of gray seen in the pixel. This forms the basic grayscale foundation for the image and the 1024 shades of gray the DMD chip can produce. Color is then added to the reflected light as it passes through a high speed 6 panel color wheel and is reflected off of the micro-mirrors on the DMD chip. The mirrors on the chip rapidly tilt towards or away from the light source as the light is reflected off of it. The angle of tilt the mirror has in conjunction with the spinning color wheel forms a specific color structure for the projected image. Once the light bounces off of the micro-mirrors, it is sent through the lens and is projected onto a screen. In order to achieve the best quality, DLP projectors contain more than one DMD chip, making it possible for the system to produce 35 trillion colors.

The advanced technology of this system makes it suitable for both home theaters as well as in commercial use (ex. movie theaters). For use in movie theaters, films are digitally converted and stored on either a hard drive or optical disc. These storage devices then relay the information to the DLP projector.

Other advantages of the device are that the projected image will not contain all those scratches that appear on normal film, and the color accuracy exceeds any other projection device. In addition, the DLP projector has no “screen door” effect (pixilated image) due to its micro-mirror construction, compactness, low power consumption, and high contrast and brightness. And the best part is that the device is light so it is easy to transport.

Though projector produces optimal image quality, it does have some disadvantages. For instance, the DMD chip has a finite number of pixels and the light source has to be changed every 1,000 to 2,000 hours. In addition, the DLP projector does have a “rainbow effect”, which is exhibited by a brief flash of colors when the viewer rapidly looks from side to side on the screen or room. Currently, Texas Instruments is working on a new design for the DMD chip to make improvements on these flaws as well as improve the image contrast.

Due to the projectors compact size, great image projection quality, portability, and affordable cost (starting at $800), the DLP projectors have been doing extraordinary in sales over the past few years. It is especially a favorite among home movie goers because it brings the experience of being in a theater right into the comfort of the home. In theaters, the projector is also doing very well because it is easier to run and does not present any risk of catching on fire. This device would have probably been very helpful in the Laurier Palace Theater!

-Adam Kohn

Cellulose Successor

After reading Dr. Schwarcz's essay, one can recognize that cellulose nitrate is obviously not the best way to store information used by films due to its highly flammable properties. However, when the film industry stopped using cellulose nitrate as a film, the film industry did not just stop; they needed to replace it with something more reliable, something that would not turn an innocent Friday night into a massacre. Thus the film industry turned to "safety film." In the 1930s the industry used a cellulose triacetate film. However, it still had problems. Similar to the cellulose nitrate, the film deteriorated when the acetic acid diffused to the surface causing the film to change properties. Since then a majority of the film bases have been based on cellulose. However, since the 1980s many films have used polyester, a polymer. A polymer is a long molecule consisting of repeating units, called monomers, held together by chemical bonds. The differences in the monomers change the property of the polymer. In polyester, the monomers are molecules in the ester functional group, a group in which an organic group replaces hydrogen in an oxygen acid. These monomers make polyester a highly resistant to heat. Not only does it not explode, but its melting point is 255 degrees Celsius as opposed to cellulose nitrate which ignites at around 130-140 degrees Celsius. This property makes it a perfect film base for movies.
-Ethan Kleinbaum

Self Digesting Film

Dr. Joe Schwarcz mentions the decay of film through the release of acetic acid by the film itself, or "vinegar syndrome" (Schwarcz 249). Vinegar syndrome has been a headache to film collectors all over the world, mainly because nothing says "your antique film is rotting" better than a piercing, sour odor greeting the nostrils as the box of the film is being opened.
Vinegar syndrome is caused high humidity and heat. These two factors combined initiates the breakdown of the base materials in film, cellulose and acetic acid. The high temperature vaporizes the acetic acid, which moves among the water molecules in the humid air, breaking down the cellulose that creates the film. Also, this is how the distinct, vinegar-like smell travels out of the container. With time the symptoms will get worse, as acidity levels increase dramatically, and film deterioration becomes extreme within a matter of only a few months. Furthermore, this kind of decay can spread like a plague between closely placed films, enabling it to have the devastating ability to destroy entire collections.
Currently, there is no guaranteed treatment for vinegar syndrome. So identifying and preventing decay and contamination should be the top priority. Because the film decays as acetic acid spreads, identification can easily, but unpleasantly, done by simply smelling the film. A mild sourness indicates the start of deterioration, while a strong, nose clenching smell indicates that the film is almost unusable. To prevent vinegar syndrome, it is crucial that the film is placed in a low temperature storage environment, preferably 10 degrees Celsius or lower, so that the acetic acid does not vaporize.
-Mike Ma

Projection Perfection through Bright Light

"The key element in a projector is the light source"
Quotation from linked website
In order to make a movie visible to an entire audience on a wide screen, such as in a movie theater, a key aspect essential to make this happen is the projection of the film. The first key element needed in order to make this happen is to have a light source. Since the early 1900’s, carbon arc lamps have been used, but unfortunately, they have a very short life. As a result, xenon bulbs, though very expensive, are more commonly used because xenon conducts electricity very well, causing the bulb to create a glow that can last up to 6,000 hours. Even though xenon bulbs are the perfect match for projecting movies, they are very difficult to make. First of all, in order to prevent the bulb from overheating, the bulbs must contain a quartz envelope instead of a glass one. This quartz shell houses a cathode and an anode. With the cathode and anode, a charge can then be created that arcs between them when a charge is applied. In addition, since xenon in its gaseous form is very conductive, no filaments are needed to carry a charge. It is crucial that the xenon inside of the bulb is pure and that the quartz envelope is sealed or the bulb will not shine to its full potential.

The bulb is then positioned inside of a parabolic mirror in the lamphouse, the casing for the light. The parabolic mirror serves as a reflector that focuses the light from the bulb on the condenser, a pair of lenses used to intensify the light and focus it on the main lens assembly. With the light’s great intensity, the heat produced is capable of melting the film, such as what transpired in the Laurier Palace Theater.

Upon leaving the lamphouse, the focused light enters the projector and is intercepted by the shutter, a small, propeller-like device that rotates 24 times per second. The purpose of the blades on the shutter are to block the path of the light as it reaches a certain point in its revolution. This causes the light to black out for a faction of a second, which is synchronized with the advancement of the film to prevent the projected image from flickering or appearing out of sync. Some projectors use double shutters that rotate in opposite directions, further reducing the possibility of flicker.

The light must first pass through an opening, called an aperture gate, before it gets to the film. The aperture gate is a small, removable metal frame that blocks the lights from illuminating anything but the part of the film that is being projected onto the screen.

The light then enters the main lens, which is removable and can be changed depending on the format of the film. The two most widely used lenses are ‘flat’ and ‘CiinemaScope’. In order to facilitate the use of both lenses, many projectors have a turret that allows both types of lenses to be mounted and rotated into place.

The light then passes through the viewport at the front of the projection booth. It then travels to the front of the auditorium until it reaches the screen, causing the image from the film to appear on the screen. So in short, you can simply say that a movies projection perfection is all due to bright light!

-Adam Kohn